Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS): a high stakes achievement test that determines eligibility for graduation in the state of Massachusetts (Massachusetts Department of Education, n.d.).

Fluency: "Reading smoothly, quickly, and with expression" (Tomkins, 2003, 506).

Graphic organizers: "Diagrams that provide organized, visual representations of information from texts" (Tomkins, 2003, 506).

Scaffolding: "The support a teacher provides to students as they read and write" (Tomkins, 2003, 507).

Visual tools: Visuals "such as organizers, webs, and thinking-process maps" (Hyerle, 2000, 1) which "show patterns of thinking" (Hyerle, 2000, vi).

Thinking Maps: "Eight visual tools based on [the eight] fundamental thinking skills" (Hyerle, 2000, book jacket); maps include Circle Map, Bubble Map, Double Bubble Map, Tree Map, Brace Map, Flow Map, Multi-flow Map, and the Bridge Map (Hyerle, 2000, 108).

Circle Map: Thinking Map used for "representing and brainstorming ideas, defining words by showing context clues, and identifying audience and author's point of view" (Hyerle, 2000, 108).

Bubble Map: Thinking Map used for "expanding descriptive vocabulary, describing characters using adjectives, and providing descriptive details for writing" (Hyerle, 2000, 108).

Double Bubble Map: Thinking Map used for "comparing and contrasting characters, prioritizing essential characteristics, and organizing a compare-and-contrast essay" (Hyerle, 2000, 1 08).

Tree Map: Thinking Map used for "identifying main idea, supporting ideas, details; organizing topics and details for writing; and taking notes for lectures and research papers" (Hyerle, 2000, 108).

Brace Map: Thinking Map used for "comprehending physical setting in stories, analyzing physical objects from technical reading, and organizing and writing technical manuals" (Hyerle, 2000, 108).

Flow Map: Thinking Map used for "sequencing story plot by stages and substages, analyzing and prioritizing important events, and sequencing paragraphs for writing" (Hyerle, 2000, 108).

Multi-flow Map: Thinking Map used for "analyzing causes-effects in literature, predicting outcomes from previous events, and organizing 'if-then' persuasive writing" (Hyerle, 2000, 108).

Bridge Map: Thinking Map used for "comprehending analogies, similes, and metaphors; preparing for testing using analogies; and developing guiding analogies for writing" (Hyerle, 2000, 108